Identification of influencing factors for user mental models in novel authentication systems

Abstract

Authentication is a fundamental component of secure information systems. As authentication mechanisms become increasingly complex and cyber threats continue to evolve, the need for effective and user-acceptable security solutions has grown. Contemporary approaches, including biometric authentication, behavioural verification, and multi-factor authentication (MFA), aim to address these challenges. However, the effectiveness of such systems depends not only on their technical properties but also on how users conceptualize, interpret, and interact with them. This study examines the key factors influencing users’ mental models of modern authentication systems. A quantitative-dominant, survey-based research approach was employed, supplemented by limited qualitative input from open-ended survey questions. Factors such as usability, trust, privacy concerns, prior experience, and social influence were analysed to explore their association with users’ expectations and perceptions of authentication technologies. Data were collected over a 15-day period from 200 participants (113 men and 87 women) using a structured online questionnaire. The findings indicate that users frequently develop incomplete or inaccurate mental models of authentication systems. These mental models appear to be shaped more strongly by prior experience and perceived usability than by an understanding of the underlying technical security mechanisms. This research contributes to human-centred security by offering empirical insights that may support the design of authentication systems that are more usable, trustworthy, and aligned with user expectations.